Learning and Memory: The Brain in Action
by Marilee Sprenger

Copyright © 1999 by the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission from ASCD.

Preface and Acknowledgments
In the late 1980s, I realized that my students weren't learning as easily or eagerly as they had in previous years. For some reason, they were changing—and my techniques and attitudes were not. My first approach to this dilemma was to get them to "change back," to fit my teaching model. I finally discovered that the only person I could change was myself. So I started searching for information. I took classes on discipline, parenting, self-esteem, and music. I researched learning styles, talked to child psychologists, and read anything I could about the brain.

In 1992 I signed up for a five-day graduate class with brain "guru" and author Eric Jensen. During that week I discovered my new passion—the human brain. Eric asked if I wanted to travel with him and be trained in presenting workshops on brain-compatible strategies for teaching. I was reluctant to leave my husband, Scott, and our children for part of the summer. I was born and raised in Peoria, Illinois, attended Bradley University in Peoria, and married my high school sweetheart. The thought of traveling with a stranger from California was frightening for this Midwestern woman. So I declined.

After watching me pout for several days, my very understanding and supportive husband said the words that would change my life: "If you don't go, nothing will ever change." I called Eric and asked if I could still join him. He said yes. After training with him that summer, I began my own research and designed other classes on brain research and teaching strategies. I have been training educators in practical, brain-compatible teaching strategies every summer and available weekend since then.

My research on the brain continued. I began to see what a powerful factor the research had become in my classroom and in my personal life. Getting up in the morning and going to school became a joy for me once again. I realized the importance of this information and began teaching my students how their brains worked, so they could become better learners. I found that my students looked forward to growing new dendrites and strengthening their synapses!

Learning and memory eventually became my focus. As I spoke at state and national conferences, classroom teachers inspired me. Their excitement at learning this new information was infectious. The application of the research to my classroom experience offered tangible evidence that these strategies could make a difference.

I decided to put it all on paper. Although nothing appears to remain constant in this field, I wanted teachers to know two things: (1) the brain has everything to do with learning, and (2) the more we know about brain science, the easier it will be to make the hundreds of decisions each day that affect our students.

It took almost a year to put this book together. Scott became my personal editor until ASCD turned me over to Joyce McLeod, whose writing and editing expertise guided me through this publishing experience. I had self-published two previous books, but in this situation I required guidance and support. Joyce offered both.

I am grateful to those experts who showed me the way into this exciting field of brain research. Robert Sylwester has answered many of my questions through the years. Pat Wolfe has encouraged my work and been a wonderful role model. Science writer Janet Hopson graciously answered my e-mail queries; and Eric Chudler, a neuroscientist, has inspired both my middle school students and my graduate students as we study the brain. His wonderful Web site, Neuroscience for Kids (http://weber.u.washington.edu/~chudler/neurok.html), and his tireless patience in answering our questions added a great deal to our learning. I am also grateful for my friends who listened to all my "brain talk" during the years, especially Glenn Posmer.

The knowledge I gained allowed me to change my approach to teaching in such a powerful way that I would like to share it with other teachers, administrators, and anyone else who is curious about how the brain works and who is interested in making a difference in the lives of students.

Losing Your Mind: The Function of Brain Cells

It is bridge night, and some friends and I are talking about a mutual friend's new baby. As we reminisce, the births of my own children come to mind. I remember the middle-of-the-night dash to the hospital, the pain, the excitement, and the exhaustion. There are some things you just never forget.

One of my bridge friends interrupts my thoughts and asks, "How much did your babies weigh?"

I reach back into my memory of Josh's birth and that exciting day. I open my mouth to speak and say, "Josh weighed 7 pounds . . . umm, 7 pounds . . ." My brain just isn't functioning correctly. I know the answer to this like I know my own name. I own this information. A mother should never forget this stuff. What did he weigh? The embarrassment is overwhelming, so I quickly say, "Oh, yes, Josh weighed 7 lbs. 5 oz." It is a lie. What in the world is wrong with me?

On the way home I remembered Josh's birth weight. I was so relieved. I thought I was really losing my mind. Was I losing it? No, not in the sense that I would no longer be able to function. Why couldn't I remember Josh's birth weight? That question has many different answers. Let's examine the brain to find out how it works. Then answering questions about our memories will be easier.

Brain Cells
The brain is a fascinating organ. Like the rest of the body, it is composed of cells; but brain cells are different from other cells. Our discussion focuses on two types of brain cells: neurons and glial cells. Although the brain has many other types of cells, these are the ones most involved in learning.

Neurons
The brain cell that gets much attention is the neuron. Neuron simply means "nerve cell." Until recently, it was believed that the brain could not generate new neurons. Recent research shows that in one area, the hippocampus, there is evidence of new cells (Kinoshita, 1999). Before birth the brain produces about 250,000 neurons per minute. At birth, we have about 100 billion neurons, and although we maintain that number, the neurons may lose their connecting powers (Diamond & Hopson, 1998). If neurons are not used at appropriate times during brain development, their ability to make connections dies. Neuroscientists call this process "neural pruning." So, yes, we are all losing our minds!

However, you don't need to panic about those lost connections. The ones that you have left can take care of anything you need to know or learn for the rest of your life. Some research implies that we use from 1 to 20 percent of our brain. However, we actually use all of our brain, but not all of its processing power (Chudler, 1998). The miracle of the brain is that it is built for continual learning.

What is learning, and how does it occur in the brain? Neuroscientists define learning as two neurons communicating with each other. They say that neurons have "learned" when one neuron sends a message to another neuron (Hannaford, 1995). Let's examine the process.

A neuron has three basic parts: the cell body, the dendrites, and the axon. Your hand and forearm are "handy" representations of a neuron. The cell body can be compared to the palm of your hand. Information enters the cell body through appendages called dendrites, represented by your fingers. Just as you wiggle your fingers, your dendrites are constantly moving as they seek information. If the neuron needs to send a message to another neuron, the message is sent out through the axon. Your wrist and forearm represent the axon. When a neuron sends information down its axon to communicate with another neuron, it never actually touches the other neuron. The message has to go from the axon of the sending neuron to the dendrite of the receiving neuron by "swimming" through a space called the synapse. As the neurons make connections, the brain is growing dendrites and strengthening the synapses.

If we have 100 billion neurons in our head, they must be very small. Imagine this: 30,000 neurons can fit on the head of a pin. That's impressive, but there's more. Each neuron may be linked with another 5,000 to 10,000 neurons. The brain has about one quadrillion neural connections (Wolfe, 1996). That's a lot of communication going on inside our heads! The process of neurons talking to each other is electro-chemical: the action within the neuron is electrical, but the message becomes chemical as it travels between neurons. The chemicals are called neurotransmitters. Chapter 2 provides more information about neurotransmitters.

Think about a small child's first experience when his mother points out a red bird and tells the child, "That's a red bird. It's called a cardinal." The child attempts to repeat the word. "Cawdnal. Bood." The child's brain has made a connection. A few neurons are now talking to each other about birds. If the child watched as the bird flew out of the tree, he may have the connecting neurons of bird-cardinal-fly. The next time he sees a cardinal, his brain will make those connections again. This time the neurons may connect faster, because when neurons learn or practice information, they become more efficient at connecting.

Neurons are stored in columns in the upper portion of the brain called the neocortex (Sylwester, 1995). The child might make other connections related to the cardinal. If he sees geese flying south, he might add that to the bird-cardinal-fly connection. From there, he might add a butterfly or an airplane.

This chain of neurons is called a neural network. The more often the brain accesses the network, the stronger the connections become. Those synapses, or spaces, become stronger as well. As these neurons are repeatedly "fired," that is, talk to each other, the dendrites and axons become accustomed to the connections, and the connections are easier to make. Compare this to a path in the woods. The first time you create a path, it is rough and overgrown. The next time you use it, it is easier to travel because you have previously walked over the weeds and moved the obstacles. Each time thereafter, it gets smoother and smoother. In a similar fashion the neural networks get more and more efficient, and messages travel more swiftly.

Researchers are currently exploring an important theory called long-term potentiation (LTP). LTP suggests that every time a neuron fires information across a synapse, the memory of that information is encoded exponentially. That means the information is learned multiple times each time it is practiced. The signal has changed the potential of the receiving neuron, and it now has the potential to learn faster (Fitzpatrick, 1996).

During the first year of life, the brain makes neuronal connections at an enormous rate. Some scientists say that after the first two years, the brain never again learns as much or as quickly. What is happening during this time? The brain is first wiring the infant up to his body. It is making the connections for movement, sight, and sound (Begley, 1997). The baby is also making connections with his primary caretaker. Using his own sounds and movements, the infant communicates with those who are meeting his needs. He begins to recognize voices as well as the expression in those voices. The baby rapidly learns which sounds will get him the desired attention.

Because the brain is so immature at birth, it takes another 18 to 20 years to complete the wiring. We are a social culture, and each individual must "wire up" to a specific culture and society (Sylwester, 1997a). Specific brain areas develop at their own rates.

Glial Cells
The second type of brain cell, the glial cell, is just beginning to get the attention it deserves. Glial cells are nurturing cells for the neurons. Glial means "glue," and neuroscientists had good reasons for this name. Glial cells first assist in the migration of neurons during fetal brain development. Their fibers act like ropes for the neurons to hold onto as they make their way through the brain (Kunzig, 1998). The glial cells feed and do the housekeeping for the neurons, almost attaching themselves to the neurons to keep them nourished. The more often the brain uses neurons, the more glial cells it needs. Indeed, when researchers dissected Albert Einstein's brain, they found an extraordinary collection of glial cells in a specific area of his brain. They concluded that this area in Einstein's brain showed more possible use than the same area in any other brain ever studied (Diamond, 1996).

Unlike neurons in most areas of the brain, glial cells can reproduce, so we can have as many as our brain needs. Communication remains fast and easy because these glial cells work and nurture the neurons.

Myelin
Another substance that neuroscientists are studying is myelin. This fatty substance coats the axons of neurons. The coating acts like insulation and allows messages to travel quickly without any loss of transmission. Currently two theories describe the production and release of myelin.

One theory, supported by neurophysiologist Carla Hannaford (1995), says that myelin is added to the axon with use. In other words, as the neuron is called upon to fire, a coating of myelin is put down. If the neuron is part of a network of neurons fired often, the axon will be heavily myelinated. So, like the path in the woods that is constantly walked upon, the neuronal path becomes smoother and faster.

Other researchers, like Jane Healy (1994), theorize that the myelination of neurons is a developmental process that begins at birth. According to this theory, the brain releases myelin in stages, beginning with the lower brain areas. The final area of the brain to be myelinated is in the prefrontal cortex behind the forehead. This is where decision making, planning, and many higher-order thinking skills take place. This area is also associated with short-term memory.

What are the implications of these two theories? Could both be correct? In my study of the brain, I have read about both ideas and observed how the researchers have swung both ways on this pendulum. Let's look at some facts.

The development of the brain from birth through the end of adolescence parallels the child development stages identified by Jean Piaget. The researchers who believe in the developmental release of myelin state that the stages of myelin release coincide with Piaget's developmental stages. Piaget identifies four developmental stages:

Sensorimotor stage (birth–2 years)—At this stage the child interacts physically with the environment. She builds a set of ideas about reality and how it works.

Pre-operational stage (ages 2–7)—At this stage the child is not yet able to think abstractly. She needs concrete physical situations.

Concrete operations (ages 7–11)—At this stage the child has accumulated enough experiences to begin to conceptualize and to do some abstract problem solving, though the child still learns best by doing.

Formal operations (ages 11–15)—At this stage the child's thought processes are beginning to be like those of an adult.

Although Piaget suggests that this stage occurs between the ages of 11 and 15, current research suggests that this stage varies with the individual. After spending some time teaching at the high school level, I have observed that many students appear to reach this final stage during their sophomore year, though some don't quite make it until senior year or afterward. Only 50 percent of the adult population reach this stage at all (Jensen, 1998).

Short-term memory does not reach capacity until approximately the age of 15. The capacity of short-term memory in a fully developed brain is seven chunks of information. At age 3, space exists for only one chunk. With the discovery by researchers like LeDoux (1996) that short-term memory is held in the frontal lobes, the last area myelinated, it makes sense that the frontal lobe's incomplete development due to the lack of myelin would influence short-term memory.

Many students today have difficulty with higher-order thinking skills. Although children of every age have some ability to synthesize, abstract, and evaluate, some children have more difficulty than others. Realizing that this difficulty may be due to the lack of myelin or its delayed release could lessen both children's frustration and that of the adults trying to help them.

Smooth transfer of information from neuron to neuron is greatly dependent on myelin. My two 4-year-old neighbors are a joy to watch. Their development and interests are very different. Joey loves to do acrobatics. He can do cartwheels better than I ever dreamed of doing them. He can almost do flips, and he loves any type of physical adventure. On the other hand, Mark is not very agile. He has difficulty doing somersaults. Instead of concentrating on the physical world, Mark is trying to read. He is constantly bugging his mother to tell him what written words say. Mark knows the alphabet and can spell some words.

Both boys are normal preschoolers. They are simply developing differently. Carla Hannaford (1995) believes that children benefit when neuronal connections are made through body movement. These connections will help them develop the neuronal systems for reading when they are ready. These boys obviously have different interests, which may have been inspired by their environments. Joey's sisters are acrobats, and perhaps he received recognition for mimicking their behavior. Because Mark is the older sibling in his family, he may be exhibiting behavior that he believes will win his parents' approval. Whatever the reasons, the firing of neurons is causing the learning.

The developmental differences among children are great. Whether these differences are caused by heredity or by the environment is a debate that continues. Whether myelin is released in stages or through use of the neurons, children still exhibit differences.

Myelin is a factor in brain growth and learning. I believe that both theories may be correct. It makes sense that as the brain continually uses its networks of neurons, transmission of information is swifter. It also makes sense that as their brains develop, children undergo vast changes.

Neuron Signals
Cartoonists often draw a lightbulb above the head to portray a character with an idea. This portrayal actually contains some element of truth. The brain has enough electrical power to light a 25-watt bulb. As mentioned previously, the process of neurons communicating is electro-chemical. The electrical part takes place within the neuron.

All matter has an electrical property. The electrical charges, called ions, are either positive or negative. The ions in the brain are sodium, potassium (each with one positive charge), calcium (with two positive charges), and chloride (with one negative charge). Some negatively charged protein molecules are also present. Neurons are surrounded by a cell membrane that may allow some ions to pass through and that block others. The openings in the cell membrane are called channels. While some channels remain open, others open only in response to chemical stimulation.

Resting Potential
When a neuron is not sending a signal, the area inside the neuron has more negatively charged ions, and the area outside has more positively charged ions. This is called its resting potential. At this level potassium ions pass through channels easily, but chloride and sodium ions have very few channels to flow through, and protein ions have none. All of the ions want to move across the membrane, but because only the positively charged potassium does so readily, the outside of the neuron is positive and the inside is negative. This balance keeps the neuron at rest. During this time the electrical charge inside the neuron can be measured at about negative 70 millivolts and the outside at positive 70 millivolts (Dowling, 1998).

Action Potential
When a chemical stimulus causes the opening of sodium channels, positively charged sodium ions rush into the negatively charged neuron, and the neuron becomes more positive. This state, called action potential, depolarizes the neuron. The millivolts within it increase, and at a voltage of about negative 55 millivolts the neuron fires. This firing is always of a fixed size. In other words, it is an all-or-nothing situation. This change in voltage causes an electrical energy output that sends the charge down the axon, across the synapse, and to the dendrites of the receiving neuron. Thus, a message is sent. When the potassium channels open again, potassium rushes out of the cell and the neuron goes back to resting potential.

Rats, Cats, Children, and Adults: How Do Their Dendrites Grow?
The brain's ability to grow and change is called plasticity. Neuronal activity, or the lack of it, causes these changes. The change process prompts questions such as these: How do we know it is happening? Where is the proof? Can it happen to anyone? Am I too old for brain growth? In other words, can you teach an old dog new tricks? The answers to these questions lie in years of research by some impressive neuroscientists. Let's examine the evidence.

Marian Diamond (1988) of the University of California at Berkeley has been studying the brain development of rats for more than 40 years, with impressive results. She and her colleagues and students conduct experiments in which they place rats in enriched environments. They use control groups to check for accuracy. In one of her tests, she placed a single rat in a regular rat cage—no fun toys for this one. The rat was given food and water as a normal lab rat would be. A larger cage housed one rat with toys. This rat also was tended to in a normal fashion. Then there was the fancy group—12 rats in a large cage containing rat toys, such as wheels to run on, trails to follow, and blocks to climb. The last cage housed 12 rats with no toys. Diamond called the cages with toys enriched environments and those without toys impoverished. The control group for this study consisted of three rats in a small cage with no toys.

The results of this study are exciting. Rats in the enriched environments (those with toys) had more dendritic connections than the rats in the impoverished environments; the dendritic branches were thicker as well (see figure 1.7). The study also showed that the control group with three rats learned more than either the rat left alone in the impoverished environment or the rat left alone in the enriched environment. Diamond concluded that the rats learned more by living together and even more by living together in an enriched environment.

Studies like this led to even more studies using rats. The rat brain is very similar in structure to the human brain, but because it has fewer "wrinkles," it is easier to measure.

William Greenough of the University of Illinois discovered that rats in enriched environments had 25 percent more connections between neurons and performed much better in tests (Kotulak, 1996). He believes that synapses can be formed in seconds! (More dendrites create more synapses.) Researchers have found proof of changes in the brains of rats after only four days. In four days dendritic growth as a result of enrichment can occur, and in four more days dendritic death can occur as a result of lack of stimulation (Hooper & Teresi, 1986).

As an educator, I have a favorite rat story. In a 1985 study, Diamond placed baby rats and mature rats in the same enriched cage. She wanted to know if both the young rats and the older rats would grow more dendrites. The surprise came when the older rats refused to let the young rats play with the toys. The mature rats took over the cage and did not allow the baby rats to play. The result was that only the mature rats grew dendrites.

Why do I like this story? When I walk past classrooms with high-tech equipment such as computers, I like to watch what is happening. Often I see the teacher (the old rat) sitting at the computer showing the students how to do something. The students are sitting and watching. Who's growing dendrites here—the old rat or the babies?

We can conclude from Diamond's study that it isn't enough for students to be in an enriched environment. They need to help create that environment and be active in it.

Another rat study really intrigued me. During a visit to Japan to observe Japanese researchers' work with rats, Diamond learned that the Japanese rats were living to be 900 days old, which equals about 90 years for humans. Diamond's rats had been living only about 700 days, which is an expected life span for a laboratory rat. Intrigued, Diamond looked for differences between the two groups of rats. The food, temperature, and cages seemed to be similar for both groups. However, she did notice one difference. In Japan the lab assistants held the rats while the cages were being cleaned. In Diamond's studies, the rats were simply put into another cage. She concluded that this touching and holding may have increased the rats' life span. In addition, because the rats were not put into a "strange" cage while their own was being cleaned, they may have felt less stress. After Diamond returned to the United States, she instructed her lab assistants to hold the rats. The rats began living beyond their 700 days and had more dendritic connections than rats that were not held (Wolfe, 1996). We can conclude that gentle care can add to life span and contribute to brain growth.

Researchers have also conducted several studies with kittens. One study involved taking identical twin kittens at a critical time in their visual development and placing them in a large, circular container painted with black and white vertical stripes. These lines were the kittens' only visual stimulation. A balance beam with a basket on each end revolved in the center of the container. Each twin was placed in a basket. One of the baskets had holes for the kitten's legs, while the other did not. The kitten whose legs could go through the basket and touch the ground began walking around the container. His twin brother had a free ride. What the researchers discovered is truly amazing. The kitten who did the work and interacted with his environment developed great vision for vertical lines. The kitten who did not work could not see vertical lines at all (Healy, 1990). We can conclude that experiences cause brain growth, but one must actively participate in the experiences for growth to take place.

Now that we've talked about rats and cats, let's look at children and adults. After studying the results of such researchers as Greenough, Craig Ramey of the University of Alabama designed a study with children from an inner-city, impoverished environment (Kotulak, 1996). He took a group of children as young as 6 weeks old and exposed them to an enriched environment with playmates, good nutrition, and opportunities for learning and playing. Ramey followed this group and a control group for 12 years. Using intelligence tests and brain-imaging techniques, he found a significant difference in the way in which the children's brains had developed. The enriched children had significantly higher IQs, and brain imaging revealed that their brains were using energy much more efficiently, according to the scans. We can conclude that the brain is sensitive to its early environment and that enrichment can make a difference.

What can we do about growing dendrites? Researchers are addressing this question with a group of nuns in Mankato, Minnesota, who are participating in a study to examine the effects of remaining mentally and physically active in their work and daily lives. These women have lived well beyond the average life span, and researchers attribute their longevity to their active lifestyle. They constantly stimulate and challenge their brains (Golden, 1994).

Studies have compared the IQs of people in nursing homes with the IQs of those waiting to be admitted. People in the nursing homes have significantly lower IQs than those awaiting admission. In many cases, IQs go down measurably after just six months in a nursing home (Hooper & Teresi, 1986). Enriched environments can make a huge difference for everyone.

What Can We Learn from These Studies?
We can draw a number of conclusions from these studies. First, from the rat studies, a social environment is a form of enrichment. Rats do better when they interact with other rats and solve problems together. Humans are social creatures, and learning is a social activity. Gentle care was also a factor for the rats. We must take care when we work with others to help them in their quest for learning. Second, the studies with cats indicate that we need to interact with our environment. That means that both kittens must be able to walk around the container. We need to work together and all take part in the learning. Third, the studies of children tell us that the brain is very sensitive to its early environment, and enrichment affects its growth. Fourth, the study involving nuns indicates that brain stimulation at any age is important and helpful. Our lives must include some challenges. And the children, the rats, the cats, and the nuns tell us that play is important for learning.

Social interaction, care, challenge, and play are important for growing those dendrites. Whether it be in the classroom, in the home, at work, or in the community, all of these factors influence how much we learn.

As I change units of study, I usually change teams. This provides variety for both the students and me. It also guards against the inevitable hierarchy that develops on all teams (Sylwester, 1997b). If a student feels uncomfortable about a position in the hierarchy, I try to keep that position as short-term and as painless as possible.

After a particularly tough nonfiction unit in literature, I decide the kids need a change, and I form new teams. They enjoy the teams so much that I decide to use these same teams in their language arts classes. The students do not object when they come to this class, and I assign teams to their new seating arrangements. We are studying indirect objects. I am trying to prepare them for a unit test, so I begin the class with a review. The sentences on the board are ready for the students to classify in our usual way. Many of my students look at the sentences on the board as though they were written in another language. They do not know how to classify the sentences. I am outraged! How could they have forgotten? Have they left their brains at home? We have been working on this idea for three days! What is wrong with these students?

The answer, of course, is nothing. It is my mistake. I have stripped my students of their episodic memory of the sentence patterns. Just by changing their placement in the classroom, I was preventing them from accessing certain memories.

I now had a choice. I could either move them back to their original seats or reteach them in their new ones. I chose to reteach the subject matter because I wanted to find out how much time the reteaching would take. It took three days before the students were back at their original skill levels.

The Paths of Least Resistance
Deliberate strategies can access the episodic, procedural, automatic, and emotional memory lanes. Using these strategies when planning a unit can make the information more enjoyable and easier to learn. Keeping in mind that all lanes should be accessed, let's go through each one separately.

Episodic Memory Strategies
Episodic memory is location driven. Studies have shown that if people receive information in a specific location they will more easily remember it in that same location. To use episodic memory effectively may take a little thought, energy, and some creativity.

Bulletin boards may be the easiest place to begin. For each unit covered, create a bulletin board that is unique enough to stand out from all of the others that you have used. Include pictures, posters, and symbols. Examples of how a problem or solution should look may impress your students. Even if you take the bulletin board down before a test, that information may still appear in your students' minds. Several weeks of looking at the board should leave an impression. Although the information becomes "invisible," the learning is stored in the episodic memory.

Changing the arrangement of the desks in your room, including your own, will help you and your students better use the episodic memory lane. Students who sit in the same spot week after week could begin to confuse information. In addition to changing the seating chart, change the arrangement of the students. Perhaps you can change the number of students on a team or put students in pairs. Change the desks or tables from rows to a circle or some other geometric shape. This will help make the material unique to the new look of your classroom.

Accessorize! Wear hats, scarves, belts, shoes, masks, or full costumes to enhance the learning experience. If you are studying the Civil War, find an old Yankee or Confederate cap to wear throughout the unit. Better yet, have each student make a hat to wear. This will make the information memorable and real.

Move out of your room. Perhaps you can use the library or go outside to learn some material. Take field trips. Anything you can do to make the learning unique may make the learning permanent. This may be possible for only very short units.

Use one color of paper for all the handouts related to a unit. This will help your students remember information that was on that color of paper. They will not need to recall anything on the reams of white paper they usually receive. In my English classes I prepare definition sheets using different colors for each unit. I simply remind my students to think about the "yellow" sheets or the "blue" sheets as I ask them to recall.

Teach from a specific area of the room. For each area of study change the location from which you teach. Recalling your location will help students recall the information more readily. They will associate your location with the information you shared.

Episodic memory techniques can do more than help students remember. They can also add to the enjoyment of learning. The brain likes novelty. It is intrigued by it, and it pays attention to it (Jensen, 1996). You will not be overstimulating your students with these changes. Instead, you'll be offering them a better opportunity to remember.

Procedural Memory Strategies
There are two ways to help students access their procedural memory lane. One is to have students perform the material often enough that it becomes a procedure. The other is to set up procedures in your classroom that will create strong memories. Let's look at each way.

When a procedure is repeated frequently, the brain stores it in the cerebellum for easy access. In the past, science was one of the only subject areas that was conducive to this way of storing information. Laboratory procedures were common, and these methods created strong learning experiences. Sometimes, however, even in the science lab, work is not repeated enough to become a procedure. Today, hands-on techniques can be used in many subject areas to provide procedural memories. Math students use manipulatives to develop their conceptual understanding and to solve problems. The problems change, but the procedure for doing them does not. With enough repetition, the students remember the procedure. English students use magnetized labels and follow a process to label each part of speech in a sentence on a magnetized board. Repetition allows them to store this process. This technique is not really any different from fire or earthquake drills. The purpose of such drills is to cement a safety procedure in children's brains—a procedure that may save lives.

You—or your students—can also invent procedures, so that the students will, through repetition, place subject matter into procedural memory (Hannaford, 1995). Try anything that provides movement—for example, role-playing, debate, dance, marches, monologues, and games. Making shadow boxes can enhance procedural memory. Sock-puppet shows can reinforce many concepts in any content area. These procedures not only reinforce semantic knowledge, but they also represent memories that can be stored through those procedural memory "muscles." If you have trouble applying your content to any of these, use your imagination. Have students stand up as you cover specific material. Ask them to walk as you review it, jump when they think they understand a particular point, and clap when they know it all. All of that movement and fun will make a big impression on their brains.

Automatic Memory Strategies
The automatic memory lane stores multiplication tables, the alphabet, the ability to decode words, and dozens of other memories triggered by simple associations. Strategies for accessing this memory lane are simple and fun.

The strategy I highly recommend is music. Putting information to music is simple for students of all ages. They usually find songs easy to remember, and they can then practice the information daily. For years I have had students learn the 48 prepositions, 23 helping verbs, and 18 linking verbs by writing their own songs. They use old, tried-and-true melodies, but they make up the lyrics. It can be as simple as taking "Mary Had a Little Lamb" and replacing all of the words with the list of words the students need to remember. Raps and poems can work as well. It becomes a reflex to fill in the newly learned words when the music begins (Jensen, 1998). I have had students return after high school and tell me they still know their songs.

Other automatic strategies include the use of flash cards, repetition through daily oral work (in math, geography, language, vocabulary, and so on), and oral conditioning (for example, I say "Lincoln," you say "Gettysburg Address"). Each of these strategies has its own benefits. Students will tire of the same strategy, so provide variety. Quiz shows may be a great way to get responses to the automatic level; many students love this technique.

Emotional Memory Strategies
Without a doubt, emotional memory strategies are the most powerful. Many of these strategies also activate other memory storage areas that make them even more powerful. Both positive and negative emotions cause the brain to release certain neurotransmitters that aid in memory retention (LeDoux, 1996). That is not to say you should encourage negative emotions in your classroom, but simply to point out that strong feelings about content can add to emotional memory.

Music can be powerful in emotional memory. Using dramatic music as background while you read or discuss material can make the information meaningful. Playing the theme from "Mission Impossible" or "Dragnet" before you discuss the Battle of Gettysburg will get your students' attention and elicit feelings about the material.

Celebrations are emotional. These can be done with or without music. Plan special celebrations as students learn the material. Have the students present the material to the class through role-playing or a dramatic performance. Give them an emotion that they must try to convey and ask the class to try to recognize it. Find material that contradicts what is said in the text and that calls for debate. This technique can be very effective as students choose sides. Play devil's advocate and speak against the points you cover. Students love the opportunity to prove their teacher is wrong. Either way, it becomes an emotional experience.

Make your room the scene of the crime. If you are studying the Civil War, create the emotions felt in the era. Divide your room in half with a Mason-Dixon line. Separate the students and tell them what possessions they can keep. Allow the emotions to build as some lose their belongings and others receive them.

Most important of all is that you show your enthusiasm for your subject. Model your love of the content, and your students may find it contagious. If you share feelings about what you are teaching, your students may find that they can feel the same way about it.

Accessing Multiple Memory Lanes
The more memory lanes you can reach and teach to, the more successful your students will be in their learning. As this chapter indicates, some strategies can access more than one memory lane. This only makes your job easier. Like anything else dealing with brain-compatible learning, the more aware you are of this information, the easier it will be to use it on a conscious level.

Storytelling is a dynamic way of using multiple lanes. The brain processes parts and wholes simultaneously. Putting semantic information into a story format gives the students the whole idea and the details (Caine & Caine, 1994). Besides the semantic information, emotional memory can be tapped through the conflict or plot of the story. Episodic memory may be reached through the location in which you tell the story and how you dress.

As you plan a unit of instruction, evaluate how much of the material is aimed at the semantic lane. Are there ways you can teach that information through the other lanes? If not, review the semantic strategies described in the previous chapter and choose those that will work well with the content you are teaching.

Next decide how you can create an environment that will engage the episodic memory. What kind of bulletin boards and posters can you use? Do you need to make something? Better yet, can your students make the items to decorate for this "episode"? Are there things that you can wear that will enhance learning? Will your students be able to bring, carry, or wear anything that will make this experience more memorable?

Analyze the material to determine which procedures are built in or which ones you can create. Will the students learn better standing, sitting, or moving in some way? Are there manipulatives for this unit? Can you or your students create a dance or ritual to accompany the learning? One procedure that combines episodic memory with procedural involves making a bulletin board and decorations, and then having the students put them up. This will add information to both lanes.

Think about how you can make some learning automatic. Are flash cards a possibility? What information can be put to music? Repetition is a plus; try to find a way to use it.

Can you make this material emotional? Are there popular songs that might be associated with this material? Ask the students what they know about this new information. This may add to their feelings about it. How will you celebrate the beginning of the unit? How will you celebrate the end? What kind of role-playing or debates can you use to elicit strong feelings?

A novel that I sometimes read with my class is The Rifle by Gary Paulsen. This incredible book covers the "life" of a rifle from its creation to the present. The technical parts are difficult to follow; yet those sections are surrounded by a moving story of life and death. When I use this powerful book, I engage my students in the entire production of the unit.

I begin by asking them how they feel about guns and gun control. The answers vary among students, some of whom are beginning to hunt with their fathers. The emotional responses that I receive are steps in the right direction. We discuss drive-by shootings, hijackings, skyjackings, and the latest mass murders at schools. The students are ready to do battle over the issue. I ask the students to bring in any newspaper or magazine clippings that deal with guns. I also ask for pictures of guns.

The students bring in the needed materials to decorate the room. As they enter, I have the song "I Fought the Law, and the Law Won" playing on the boom box. The students smile or chuckle as they listen to the song. They share their information or pictures. Then they place the items around the room. By the end of the class period, the room is decorated, and the students have a basic knowledge of gun control and legislation in the United States. They have also heard some horror stories about accidental deaths and rampages by people with guns.

The next day the students choose a slip of paper from one of two piles. Half the slips say "Guns kill people." The other half say "People kill people." The students who choose "Guns kill people" sit on one side of the room. The others take the other side. I hand out the novels, and the reading begins.

So far the episodic, procedural, and emotional lanes have been activated. Playing the song each day as the students enter will trigger memories of this information.

As we read, we encounter the technical information and terms involved in building a rifle. To make this more meaningful for the students, I must discover a way for them to understand the process. We cannot build a gun ourselves because weapons or replicas are not allowed in school. We can draw. I provide paper, dictionaries, and encyclopedias. Informative Web sites on the Internet can be helpful here, too. As the novel describes the building of the rifle, we draw our own pictures in stages. We talk about the procedures used, laugh about some of them, and act out a few.

As the reading continues, we discover that the rifle passes through the hands of many people in the story. We begin to create a story map on the board. Each section has a picture of the new owner, along with a description of the person and an explanation of how he received the rifle.

Some days I ask students to come to the front of the room. I give each of them a sign to wear with the name of one of the rifle owners or another character in the story. The students discuss the order in which the owners should stand, and then one or several students retell the story. They pass a picture of the rifle from owner to owner. Other days I hand the picture to a student and say, "You are the builder of the rifle. Who are you?" Then the student gives the rifle to another student and says, "I sold the rifle to you. Who are you?" This continues until we come to the current owner. I give written quizzes occasionally to test the learning.

By now I have activated emotional, procedural, episodic, and semantic memories. With repetition of things like the names of the owners of the guns, students have some information in automatic memory.

At this point, I ask the students to create a song about the story. They can use the tune from "I Fought the Law" or compose one of their own. I assign this to each group, so that we will have only two songs when we finish. The songs should be very different, and they are. The students begin to sing their songs each day after class begins. The songs are full of information from the story.

When we reach the end of the story, most students are very emotional about the events leading up to the ending and the ending itself. Again, we have reached a technical area of the story. I need a way to help them understand. We reenact the scene. Students volunteer to be characters from the story. We create signs with names on them. One student becomes the rifle itself, and another becomes the bullet. The rifle shoots, and the bullet follows the path described in the book. The role-play is not perfect, but it appears to work. Many students are fascinated by the physics involved in the bullet's path.

As the unit culminates, I ask the students if they are still comfortable in their chosen groups. Many stay where they are. Some switch sides. They ask for debates. They spend the next several days preparing. We hold the debates, and the students discover the importance of preparation and evidence.

The final activity is a persuasive essay using the group titles as the argument. The unit ends. The students return to their previous seats. The posters, pictures, and articles are returned. Most students appear to have enjoyed the experience.

I had to use conscious effort to access all of those memory lanes. The unit became more interesting as I did so. The students were involved and happy. Each year I must add some units and change others to access all of the memory lanes. It can be a challenge, but the rewards are worth it.

Many of you have been creating units for years that access the various memory lanes. Brain research encourages us to enrich our teaching strategies. Knowing this information may enlarge your bank of teaching strategies. Use the strategies that fit your style.

When I started teaching in 1971, I didn't have a style. Even though I had fun teaching and my students were learning, I did not have a clue about what I should be doing. Through the years I have taken classes, attended workshops, and read hundreds of books as I searched for a style that would fit me. It took a long time to find a style that allowed me to feel satisfied that I was doing the job I wanted to do. There are days when I want to tear my hair out and throw in the towel. When I give myself the chance to step back and look at what I am doing, I usually see that I have slipped back into my old patterns—you know, the ones that I used repeatedly and expected different results from. I find that when I return to my brain-compatible methods, both my students and I feel successful.

About the Author
Marilee Sprenger is a middle school teacher in Peoria, Illinois. She has a master's degree in curriculum and instruction and since 1992 has spent her summers and weekends training teachers and administrators in brain research and brain-compatible teaching strategies. Sprenger is a member of the American Academy of Neurology and is an adjunct professor at Aurora University. She has coauthored two books, Powerfully Simple Techniques and The Parent Connection. She speaks at state and national conferences on learning and memory.

You can reach her at 5820 Briarwood Lane, Peoria, IL 61614. Phone: (309) 692-5820. E-mail: msprenge@aol.com (Note that there is no r at the end of her e-mail username.)